Misplaced Pages

Racism in Mexico (Spanish: Racismo en México) refers to the social phenomenon in which behaviors of discrimination, prejudice, and any form of antagonism are directed against people in that country due to their race, ethnicity, skin color, language, or physical complexion. It may also refer to the treatment and sense of superiority of one race over another.

Racism in Mexico has a long history. It is understood to be inherited from the caste system of the colonial period. However, this was not a rigid system, nor explicitly about race. In general today, people who are black and indigenous make up nearly all of the peasantry and working classes, while lighter-skinned Mexicans – many being criollo, directly of Spanish descent – are in the ruling elite. "According to INEGI, skin color continues to be a factor in social stratification... with lighter skin color, more opportunities to have better paid jobs and better managerial positions."

Additionally, racism and xenophobia are closely linked in Mexico. There are a number of historic and recent examples that include legally barring certain nationalities and ethnicities entry into the country, insensitive treatment and stereotyping of other races, and the notorious 1903 Torreón massacre of a Chinese community.

History

Colonial Mexico

For many, the Spanish caste system is the main antecedent of the phenomenon of discrimination in Mexico. The different colonial institutions established exclusion protocols based on blood purity. Spanish blood was considered the most dignified, while African blood was the least valuable.

According to Federico Navarrete, doctor in Mesoamerican Studies from the National Autonomous University of Mexico (UNAM), the indigenous people were the great population base of America and therefore they were the base of the economic system, the white Spaniards occupied the privileged positions of the political and economic structure, while the Indians had to work and pay tributes and taxes to the crown, and at the lowest level were the blacks, who only lived to work as slaves. Mestizos held a position below the Spanish, but above Indians and Blacks. The caste system grew from that and took on its own nomenclature to refer to the different mixtures of European, indigenous, and African blood.

For Navarrete, the use of all these distinctions actually had more to do with practical purposes and social standing, more than with the modern conception of racism (which only emerged in the early nineteenth century) so the terms 'caste' should not be confused with 'race'. After several centuries of colonialism, constant miscegenation reached the point that it was not possible to distinguish between 'pure bloods' and mestizos. The legacy of this is that "associations between socioeconomic status and racialized traits" are imbedded into Mexican society and culture to this day.

Racism in the Porfiriato

This section relies largely or entirely upon a single source. Relevant discussion may be found on the talk page. Please help improve this article by introducing citations to additional sources at this section. (September 2021) (Learn how and when to remove this message)

The Porfiriato was a period in the history of Mexico in which the general and politician Porfirio Díaz was president of the country. This period was between 1877 and 1911 and was characterized by the Porfirian policies called "order and progress" and "bread or stick". It was a period of overall economic growth. However, this was at the cost of the exploitation of indigenous and other marginalized groups. In this period, the haciendas had their peak. The peasants were mostly indigenous and black. The landowners were generally white, wealthy, foreigners. Due to the exploitation of workers and peasants, several strikes occurred throughout the country at that time, but the most important were those in Río Blanco and Cananea. The social consequence that had the most impact on racism during that time was perhaps the Caste War, in which the Mayan indigenous people rebelled against the white and mestizo population of Yucatán. There was also the exile of the Yaquis Indians from their native Sonora, in the northwest of the country, to the state of Yucatán, in the Mexican southeast, which caused the Battle of Mazocoba. Some authors suggest that racism during the Porfiriato was due to an exacerbated Mexican nationalist sentiment and to the Europeanization of Mexican culture, especially a systematic Frenchification.

The constant exploitation of indigenous people, the seizure of their lands, the long dictatorial period of General Porfirio Díaz, and the general discontent led to the outbreak of the 1910 Mexican Revolution. México Bárbaro ('Barbarian Mexico') was an extensive series of articles published by The American Magazine to publicize the human slavery that was practiced during the final years of the dictatorship of Porfirio Díaz in places like Yucatán and Valle Nacional in Mexico.

Contemporary Mexico

After the Independence of Mexico in 1821, and after the proclamation of the Constitution of 1824, "indigenous peoples lost their special colonial status, and accompanying protections, as wards of the government."

According to the National Council to Prevent Discrimination (CONAPRED), indigenous people, homosexuals and blacks, are the most discriminated groups in Mexico. In the words of the researcher Alexandra Haas, "in Mexico, unlike what happens in other countries such as the United States, racism affects a population majority instead of a privileged minority."

The National Council to Prevent Discrimination is a Mexican government agency only created in 2003.

According to the National Council for the Evaluation of Social Development Policy (CONEVAL), 71% of indigenous people live in poverty. While CONAPRED confirms that the majority of people who consider themselves Afro-descendants live in situations of marginalization and poverty. According to the census, the Afro-Mexican population is made up of 1,300,000 people. Only in 2019 was this identity, Afro-Mexicans, constitutionally recognized; its first official count was done for the 2020 census.

According to INEGI, skin color continues to be a factor in social stratification. According to the results of the first Intergenerational Social Mobility Module, the lighter the skin color, the more opportunities there are to get better paying jobs and managerial positions. The national discrimination survey conducted by INEGI in 2017 shows that 3 out of 10 respondents believe that the country's indigenous population is poor due to their culture. In addition, five out of 10 people belonging to an ethnic group declared that, in the past five years, they were denied access to health services. These premises can be applied to different categories, such as schooling, employment and wealth. With which it can be concluded that in Mexico ethnic origin functions as a social and economic determinant, despite the fact that there is no longer an institution that regulates it. However, there are notable exceptions as most of the poor in the rural north of Mexico are White (called "güeros de rancho", something akin to white trash), whilst in Southern Mexico – particularly in the states of Yucatán and Chiapas – Amerindians and Mestizos make up a large part of the upper class.

In 2020, after George Floyd's murder in the United States, actor Tenoch Huerta brought the issue of racism in Mexico to the table through social networks, which caused a controversy with actor Mauricio Martínez, who was accused of misogyny and racism.

Racism against indigenous people

In Mexico, around 25 million people consider themselves indigenous, although only 7 million people speak indigenous languages. Nevertheless, in Mexico you can see racism and discrimination against the different indigenous peoples who live mainly in rural areas of the country. They are commonly depicted as poor, or backwards, or 'lower' than the rest of the population due to their skin tone, physical features, ways of dressing, language, and their traditions and customs.

40.3% of the indigenous population have felt discriminated against, 2.9 million indigenous people have expressed that they have been denied rights and services. Among these are medical services and the delivery of medicines, followed by the denial of social services, lack of attention in government offices and job opportunities. 20.3% of the indigenous population feel that they have been discriminated against at work or school, as well as on the streets and public transportation. 24% of the indigenous population affirms that they have been excluded in social activities; forms of exclusion range from insults and looks of contempt, to threats and shoves.

The indigenous population suffers from more precarious conditions than the rest of the population. 71% of the indigenous population is in a state of poverty. The two states with the largest indigenous population in the country; Chiapas and Oaxaca are the two states with the most poverty, with 76.4% and 66.4% of the poor population respectively, indigenous people are four times more likely to be poor. Likewise, illiteracy in the indigenous population is higher than the rest, 76.7% of the indigenous population can read and write, compared to 93.6% of the non-indigenous population, Furthermore, the education of the indigenous population is lower, 21.3% of the indigenous population has no education, compared to 5% of the rest of the population, only 4.9% of the entire indigenous population receives higher education, with the likelihood of achieving that level of schooling is six times lower for the indigenous population. Job opportunities are fewer, and the indigenous population has less relevant jobs. They are paid less and around 14.8% of the indigenous working population does not receive a salary, and only 1.7% are the employers.

Anti-Asian sentiment

There has been a history of Anti-Chinese (antichinismo) sentiment and policy in Mexico. Jason Chang authored the 2017 book titled Chino: Anti-Chinese Racism in Mexico, 1880-1940, which discusses antichinismo in detail. After a lead up of racist attacks, again under Porfirio, in 1911 there was a massacre of 303 Chinese in Torreón. During the Second World War, Japanese residents were put under surveillance, movement was restricted, and some were expelled. There is a 2009 book on the topic titled The War Against the Japanese in Mexico (La guerra contra los japoneses en México) by Galindo Sergio Hernández. Asians in Mexico regularly deal with petty stereotypes and mocking. During the COVID-19 pandemic an upswing in racial abuse has been documented against Chinese and all Asians in Mexico.

Afro-Mexicans

Mexico was a major trading point in the Atlantic Slave Trade. 2.5% population of Afro-Mexicans still exist today in Mexico. In Southern Mexican towns near Belize, where the Afro-Mexican population is larger, there is a general negative attitude towards people of African descent.

Racism and immigration

Beginning in the late 1800s and continuing into the first decades of the 20th century – before and after the 1910 Revolution – xenophobic resentment towards immigrants manifested itself in different ways in official legislation. After the brutal treatment of the indigenous during the Porfiriato, a new nationalism rose on the basis of a majority ethnic composition, the Mestizo race. Fundamentally, this was an anti-colonial project to create national unity. Measures to preserve the ethnic composition of Mexico aimed to curtail an influx of migrants of the "fundamentally different" Western and Chinese peoples. There were limits put on immigration despite the very low total numbers of immigrants living in Mexico at that time. Boats were inspected before leaving China to prevent the "dregs of humanity" from being sent over. There were huge numbers of European immigrants at the time of the First World War, but most Europeans did not come to Mexico, normally opting for the US, also Argentina or Brazil. Those that did migrate to Mexico – along with the Chinese – were considered infectious, degenerate, and poisonous to the Mestizo race, and therefore the nation. In 1924 African-Americans and Afro-Cubans were explicitly restricted from immigrating, and in 1927 Eastern Europeans, Turkish, and Middle Eastern people were also considered "undesirable". Later in the 1930s prohibitions on "undesirable races" like "black, yellow, Malaysian and Hindu" people, as well as against Jews, and gypsies, were implemented.

Xenophobia against Central American migrant caravans

At the end of 2018, a series of migrant caravans of Central Americans, made up mostly of Honduran migrants and to a lesser extent South Americans, crossed the southern border of Mexico, heading for the United States. The government of Mexico repressed a large part of the migrants through the use of force, after which Donald Trump congratulated the Mexican government, while many others succeeded in their mission and entered Mexican territory. Those who managed to cross the border were given support, asylum, visas, and work for those immigrants who stayed in Mexico. However, this generated a wave of xenophobic comments, especially through social networks, by Mexicans who disagreed with the empathatic measures that had been taken, arguing things such as "I am not racist but ... first you have to help ours", "there is no work for everyone", "they are not going to cross, they are going to stay and they are only going to bring more violence", and more.

In a march called to protest against the policies of the incoming government of President Andrés Manuel López Obrador, the attendees also protested against migration. Photos of people carrying banners that said: "No more undesirable immigrants" were circulated online. There are also political parties in Mexico using racist and anti-immigrant slogans and speeches against foreigners, to reinforce the sentiment of Mexican nationalism. The most extreme xenophobic expressions were made by the Movimiento Nacionalista Mexicano (Mexican Nationalist Movement), a group that linked immigrants with criminals from the Mara Salvatrucha.

In 2020, the border with Guatemala was closed. On the same topic, one academic shares that: "in Latin America there is pigmentocracy, if you are a güero you are on the side of prosperity... and even goodness. Many of the Central Americans are Afro-descendants and that makes them undesirable. Otherwise they would be very well received."

Other instances

Spanish immigrants were common from the late 19th century until 1950 and experienced xenophobia and hispanophobia. They were blamed for many of the problems in Mexico from the late 1800s on, and they were equated with being rich, or as landlords, while also being seen as benefiting from "privileged immigration". Besides obviously La conquista, this was directly related to the earlier 'open door' policies for European investment of Porfirio Díaz.

Stereotypes, both positive and negative, about foreigners persist in Mexico. There are a number of cases of the "rejection" of white foreigners, yet it is downplayed because they are seen as symbolic representatives of countries Mexico has a colonial or military history with. White people, especially tourists, regularly experience overcharging, or what is known as the white tax.

Racist language used in Mexico

The use of racist terms and phrases in Mexico is common, but due to how accepted the expressions are, many do not realize they are rooted in racist thinking. For example, it is often said when a Mestizo person of a darker-skinned tone marries a Mestizo person of a lighter skinned-tone, they are “making the race better" ("Estan mejorando la raza."). The term Malinche (or Malinchismo) is used when a Mexican woman likes or dates a white man. As a reference to La Malinche, a Nahua woman who translated for and aided Hernán Cortés, its meaning in this context is traitor.

There are a number of common Mexican phrases that reflect negative beliefs about black people, such as "getting black" (meaning getting angry), a "supper of blacks" or Error: {{Lang}}: invalid parameter: |region= (help) (meaning a group of people getting together to cause trouble), "the little black boy in the rice" or Error: {{Lang}}: invalid parameter: |region= (help) (meaning an unpleasant dark skin tone), and work like a black or Error: {{Lang}}: invalid parameter: |region= (help) (which refers to work as a slave).

• Prieto: term used to disparagingly refer to people with dark complexions.
• Naco: according to the Royal Spanish Academy Dictionary, naco is synonymous with 'indigenous peoples'. According to the Diccionario de mexicanismos, the word defines something or someone that is perceived as vulgar, in bad taste, without civility, a person of indigenous origin, or low income. However, the term is most frequently used to refer disparagingly to poor people or those "with little culture."
• Pelado: its use is similar to the previous term, naco.
• Indio: term used primarily by light-skinned Mexicans to refer disparagingly to a dark, indigenous, or low-income person.
• Gringo: a term used widely in Latin-American to refer to foreigners, especially those from the USA. Its usage originates from describing speakers of European languages unintelligible to Spanish speakers.
• Cholo: A term normally used inoffensively to describe Chicano gang culture, but was originally used for people of mixed-blood heritage in the Spanish Empire in Latin America and its successor states as part of castas, the informal ranking of society by heritage.
• Güero or güerito: almost exclusively used inoffensively, it is used primarily by brown people to refer to a white, blonde or light-skinned person.
• Gachupín: a pejorative term used for native Spanish who live in Mexico. It is an old word, derived from the period of Nueva España. Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla mentioned the word in the Grito de Dolores: "Mueran los gachupines" (Death to the gachupines!).

In popular culture

The Mexican comic strip created by Yolanda Vargas, Memín Pinguín, used racist stereotypes of black people.

Reproductions of Nazi regalia are found regularly in Mexico City markets.

See also

• Classism
• Stereotyping
• White Mexicans
• Xenophobia

References

1. "The World; Racism? Mexico's in Denial". The New York Times. June 11, 1995. Retrieved June 6, 2020.
2. ^ Brooks, Darío (October 12, 2017). "Criollos, mestizos, mulatos o saltapatrás: cómo surgió la división de castas durante el dominio español en América" (in Spanish). BBC Mundo. Retrieved June 6, 2020.
3. Brooks, Darío (12 October 2017). "Criollos, mestizos, mulatos o saltapatrás: cómo surgió la división de castas durante el dominio español en América". BBC. Retrieved 5 June 2020.
4. "Racism Rears Its Ugly Head in Mexico". San Francisco Chronicle. August 3, 2005. Retrieved June 6, 2020.
5. "El sistema de castas novohispano, discriminación institucionalizada" (in Spanish). México Desconocido. June 3, 2020. Retrieved June 6, 2020.
6. ^ "El sistema de castas novohispano, discriminación institucionalizada". México Desconocido. 3 June 2020. Retrieved 5 June 2020.
7. Brooks, Darío (12 October 2017). "Criollos, mestizos, mulatos o saltapatrás: cómo surgió la división de castas durante el dominio español en América". BBC. Retrieved 5 June 2020.
8. ^ Krozer, Alice (7 March 2019). "Élites y racismo: el privilegio de ser blanco (en México), o cómo un rico reconoce a otro rico". Nexos.
9. Ross, Stanley (3 April 2015). "La dictadura de Porfirio Díaz: Política de "pan o palo"". barriozona. Retrieved 11 June 2020.
10. Reyes, Francisco. "La época de Don Porfirio". Biblioteca Digital ILCE. Retrieved 11 June 2020.
11. Sánchez, Evelyn (30 January 2007). "Nacionalismo y racismo en el México decimonónico. Nuevos enfoques, nuevos resultados". Nuevo Mundo, Mundos Nuevos. doi:10.4000/nuevomundo.3528. S2CID 162004428. Retrieved 11 June 2020.
12. "Mexico - Independence". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 2020-09-20.
13. ^ Yankelevich, Pablo (January 2012). "Mexico for the Mexicans: Immigration, National Sovereignty and the Promotion of Mestizaje". The Americas. 68 (3): 408–429. doi:10.1353/tam.2012.0010. JSTOR 41432334. S2CID 154660185 – via JSTOR.
14. ^ Jarquín, Antonio (4 June 2020). "Educación, empleo, justicia... así es el racismo en México, según investigadora del CIDE". El Financiero. Retrieved 5 June 2020.
15. "Sociodemographic panorama of Mexico 2020". 25 July 2020.
16. "Alfabeto racista mexicano (III) – Horizontal" (in Spanish). Retrieved 2020-09-20.
17. Stillwell, Cinnamon (2005-08-03). "Racism Rears Its Ugly Head in Mexico". SFGate. Retrieved 2020-09-20.
18. "Acusan al actor y cantante Mauricio Martínez de misoginia y racismo en Twitter". ddmx. 2 June 2020. Retrieved 3 June 2020.
19. "El polémico tuit de Tenoch Huerta que indignó al actor Mauricio Martínez". nación321. 2 June 2020. Retrieved 3 June 2020.
20. "Critican al actor Mauricio Martínez por su postura ante el racismo". El Siglo de Torreón. 2 June 2020. Retrieved 3 June 2020.
21. "EN EL PAÍS, 25 MILLONES DE PERSONAS SE RECONOCEN COMO INDÍGENAS: INALI".
22. "Población. Hablantes de lengua indígena". cuentame.inegi.org.mx. Retrieved 9 June 2020.
23. "Lamentable, aún ven a indígenas como 'pinches indios'". Excélsior (in Spanish). 2 April 2019. Retrieved 8 June 2020.
24. "Discriminación por diferencias culturales". www.cursosinea.conevyt.org.mx. Retrieved 9 June 2020.
25. "ENCUESTA NACIONAL SOBRE DISCRIMINACIÓN (ENADIS) 2017" (PDF).
26. Embargo, Redacción / Sin (20 March 2020). "Tres de cada cuatro personas indígenas en México percibe que su cultura es poco valorada: Inegi". SinEmbargo MX (in Spanish). Retrieved 9 June 2020.
27. ^ "Encuesta Nacional de Discriminación revela datos discriminatorios por grupo étnico y tono de piel". www.milenio.com. Retrieved 9 June 2020.
28. ^ "Ser indígena en México: condenado a tener menos oportunidades". ADNPolítico (in Spanish). 9 August 2019. Retrieved 9 June 2020.
29. "Élites y racismo: el privilegio de ser blanco (en México), o cómo un rico reconoce a otro rico". Economía y sociedad (in Spanish). 10 March 2019. Retrieved 10 June 2020.
30. ^ "Población Indígena en cifras" (PDF).
31. Aranda, Elizabeth (2019-06-11). "Nuevo South: Latinas/os, Asians, and the remaking of place". Ethnic and Racial Studies. 42 (8): 1353–1355. doi:10.1080/01419870.2018.1539506. ISSN 0141-9870. S2CID 149970873.
32. Chang, Jason Oliver (2019-12-11). "Comparative Orientalism in Latin American Revolutions: Antichinismo of Mexico and El Salvador". Latin American Research Review. 54 (4): 992–1006. doi:10.25222/larr.615. ISSN 1542-4278.
33. Chang, Jason Oliver (21 March 2017). Chino : Anti-Chinese Racism in Mexico, 1880-1940. Urbana, IL. ISBN 978-0-252-04086-3. OCLC 1154075976.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
34. "La masacre de chinos en Torreón". Relatos e Historias en México (in Mexican Spanish). 2020-01-23. Retrieved 2020-09-20.
35. ^ "Genocidio de chinos en Torreón". www.elfinanciero.com.mx. 4 January 2016. Retrieved 2020-09-20.
36. ^ Post, The Mazatlan (2020-02-18). "XENOPHOBIA IN MEXICO". The Mazatlán Post. Retrieved 2020-09-19.
37. "Residents of Mexicali's Chinatown face prejudice, blow to culture with coronavirus". Los Angeles Times. 2020-04-17. Retrieved 2020-09-19.
38. Gándara, Sugeyry Romina (2 April 2020). "La discriminación, virus mexicano, ataca a las personas con COVID-19 y de rasgos asiáticos: Conapred". SinEmbargo MX (in Spanish). Retrieved 2021-02-14.
39. ^ Los Angeles Times: "Roots of Latino/black anger" by Tanya K. Hernandez January 7, 2007
40. FitzGerald, David Scott; Cook-Martín, David (2014). Culling the Masses. Harvard University Press. p. 220. ISBN 978-0674729049. Retrieved 16 December 2015.
41. "Caravana de migrantes: por qué acusan a México de haberse convertido en la policía migratoria de Estados Unidos". BBC News Mundo (in Spanish). 2018-10-22. Retrieved 2020-09-22.
42. ^ "Migrantes: tampoco México se libra de la xenofobia". DW.COM (in European Spanish). 2018-11-14. Retrieved 2020-09-20.
43. "Mexico blocks hundreds of migrants from crossing border span". AP NEWS. 2020-01-18. Retrieved 2020-09-20.
44. "Spanish Emigration to Mexico" (PDF). www.revistascisan.unam.mx. Retrieved 2020-09-20.
45. "The ousting of Porfirio Díaz | History Today". www.historytoday.com. Retrieved 2020-09-20.
46. Contreras-Ibáñez, Carlos C.; Saldívar Garduño, Alicia; Contreras-Ibáñez, Carlos C.; Saldívar Garduño, Alicia (December 2018). "Sobre la relación entre la identificación con el estereotipo nacional mexicano y las actitudes hacia los inmigrantes". Polis (in Spanish). 14 (2): 39–69. ISSN 1870-2333.
47. Durston, James (28 February 2013). "Why the 'white tax' is perfectly acceptable". CNN Travel. Retrieved 2020-09-20.
48. "How to ruin a local economy: The Tourist Price". Journey Wonders. Retrieved 2020-09-26.
49. Cocking, Lauren (29 March 2018). "9 Tourist Scams to Avoid in Mexico City". Culture Trip. Retrieved 2020-09-26.
50. "Racism in Mexico?". The Final Call. June 23, 2005. Retrieved June 6, 2020.
51. "Malinchismo y malinchista". www.academia.org.mx. Retrieved 2020-09-20.
52. "¿Fue traidora la Malinche?". Arqueología Mexicana (in Spanish). 2016-07-29. Retrieved 2020-09-20.
53. ^ Consejo Para Prevenir y Eliminar La Discriminación De La Ciudad De Mexico: "Personas Afrodescendientes" Archived 2015-09-25 at the Wayback Machine retrieved September 24, 2015 (in Spanish) |

    "'"En la vida diaria, el racismo se expresa sobre todo en chistes, comentarios y frases que ridiculizan, minusvaloran o desprecian a las personas por su tono de piel, su historia, su cultura, sus tradiciones o su condición social. Frases como "El negrito en el arroz", que califica como desagradable el tono de piel oscura; "Trabajar como negro", que refleja la condición de esclavo y sobreexplotación a la que estuvieron sometidos los pueblos africanos; "Cena de negros", que indica que las personas de este tono de piel se comportan de manera violenta o poco amable, son algunos ejemplos de esas prácticas, que muchas veces se reproducen de manera irreflexiva"

54. Rodrigo Neria Cano (2 June 2020). "Prieto, la palabra que demuestra el racismo que los mexicanos no quieren reconocer". Yahoo! Noticias. Retrieved 3 June 2020.
55. ^ "Naco, una palabra mexicana con muchos significados pero ninguno positivo". El País. 7 September 2016. Retrieved 3 June 2020.
56. Garza, Eloy (15 April 2020). "¿De dónde vienen los pelados y los nacos?". sdpnoticas. Retrieved 3 June 2020.
57. Rodríguez, Darinka (3 October 2018). "#OrgullosamenteIndio: la campaña en contra del racismo que solo utiliza personas blancas". El País. Retrieved 3 June 2020.
58. Alfonso Méndez Forsell (6 December 2017). "Pásele, güerito. El discreto caso del racismo mexicano". Horizontal. Retrieved 3 June 2020.
59. "Los nuevos gachupines - La mirada en la lengua". Blogs.lavozdegalicia.es. Retrieved 28 August 2017.
60. "El Grito de Hidalgo fue contra 'los gachupines' Independencia - 15/09/2012 - Periódico Zócalo". Zocalo.com.mx. Retrieved 28 August 2017.
61. "Gachupines". Capsuladelengua.wordpress.com. 14 July 2009. Retrieved 28 August 2017.
62. Armando Cruz Sánchez (12 April 2013). "Memín Pinguín nunca fue racista; hay que ver lo blanco que es este condenado negro". La Jornada. Retrieved 5 June 2020.
63. Tenorio, Rocío (26 June 2019). "Memín Pinguín: la historieta que evidenció el racismo detrás de la "inocencia"". Dememoria. Retrieved 5 June 2020.
64. "What's up with all the horrifying Nazi gear in Mexico City's markets? | Diario Judío México". Diario Judío: Diario de la Vida Judía en México y el Mundo (in Spanish). 2019-11-12. Retrieved 2020-09-20.

• Racism in Mexico
• Racism by country
• Racism in Latin America
• Racism in North America
• Anti-Chinese violence in North America
• Anti-Japanese sentiment